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Metallurgical Compound Microscope

Steel - Vertical slurry pump EVR-100R

Material properties Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases Iron, like most metals, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, ie. combined with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur. Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe2O3he form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2yrite (fool's gold). Iron is extracted from ore by removing oxygen and combining the ore with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon.

This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at approximately 250 C (482 F) and copper, which melts at approximately 1,000 C (1,830 F). In comparison, cast iron melts at approximately 1,370 C (2,500 F). All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. Smelting results in an alloy (pig iron) containing too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue.

To prevent corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing. The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually ranges between 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (0.2800.291 lb/in3). Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of different structures, with very different properties. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure -ferrite. It is a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021 wt% at 723 C (1,333 F), and only 0.005% at 0 C (32 F). If the steel contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or -iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1% carbon at 1,148 C (2,098 F)), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel. When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for cementite to precipitate out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to mother of pearl. For steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite and cementite. Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and then quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an ferrite BCC crystal form, but higher carbon contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure.

There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors. Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible. Heat treatment Main article: Heat treating carbon steel There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel depends on the type of annealing and the constituents of the alloy. Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite or spheroidite to reduce internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Steel production Iron ore pellets for the production of steel Main article: Steelmaking See also: Steel production by country When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added.

This liquid is then continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4000 ingots are cast per year. The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern foundries these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling it is heat treated for strength, however this is relatively rare. History of steelmaking Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy Ancient steel Steel was known in antiquity, and may have been produced by managing bloomeries iron-smelting facilities so that the bloom contained carbon. Steel is mentioned in the Bible: Jeremiah 15:12 of the Authorized King James Version, it reads: "Shall iron break the northern iron and the steel?". However, it seems the Hebrews had no word for "steel" but used instead (istoma). The earliest known production of steel is a piece of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia and is about 4,000 years old. Other ancient steel comes from East Africa, dating back to 1400 BC. In the 4th century BC steel weapons like the Falcata were produced in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military. The Chinese of the Warring States (403221 BC) had quench-hardened steel, while Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC 220 AD) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. Wootz steel and Damascus steel Main articles: Wootz steel and Damascus steel Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent was found in Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka. Wootz steel was produced in India by about 300 BC. Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported into China from India by the 5th century AD. This early steel-making method in Sri Lanka employed the unique use of a wind furnace, blown by the monsoon winds and producing almost pure steel.

Also known as Damascus steel, wootz is famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge. It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements. It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component. Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology available at that time, they were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated up with the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil[citation needed], a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did long ago. Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast. Modern steelmaking A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England In Europe since 1600s, the first step in producing steel has been the smelting iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace from ore, charcoal, and air. Modern methods use coke instead of charcoal, which has proven to be a great deal cheaper. Processes starting from bar iron Main articles: Blister steel and Crucible steel In these processes pig iron was "fined" in a finery forge to produce bar iron (wrought iron), which was then used in steel-making. The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614. It was produced by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s. The raw material for this were bars of wrought iron. During the 17th century it was realised that the best steel came from oregrounds iron from a region of Sweden, north of Stockholm. This was still the usual raw material in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than being forged, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots. Processes starting from pig iron A Siemens-Martin steel oven from the Brandenburg Museum of Industry White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's Bessemer process in 1858. His raw material was pig iron. This enabled steel to be produced in large quantities cheaply, so that mild steel is now used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, because it lined the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.

Another improvement in steelmaking was the Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process. These were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking, developed in the 1950s, and other oxygen steelmaking processes. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limits impurities. Now, electric arc furnaces are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a great deal of electricity (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity. Steel industry A Corus Group plant in the United Kingdom Steel production by country in 2007 See also: History of the modern steel industry, Global steel industry trends, Steel production by country, and List of steel producers It is common today to talk about "the iron and steel industry" as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products. The steel industry is often considered to be an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development. The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence like Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and Shagang Group. ArcelorMittal is however the world's largest steel producer. In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively. In 2008, steel started to be traded as a commodity in the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs. Recycling A pile of steel scrap in Brussels, waiting to be recycled Steel is one of the most recycled materials in the world, and, as of 2007, more than 78% of steel was recycled in the United States. In the United States it is the most widely recycled material; in 2000, more than 60 million metric tons were recycled. The most commonly recycled items are containers, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials. For example, in 2007, more than 97% of structural steel and 110% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced.

A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron. The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years, in large part because it is economically advantageous to do so. It is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has drastically reduced energy and material requirements compared with refinement from iron ore. The energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year. Steel from the World Trade Center is poured for construction of USS New York (LPD-21) The BOS steelmaking uses between 25 and 35% recycled steel to make new steel. BOS steel usually has less residual elements in it, such as copper, nickel and molybdenum and is therefore more malleable than EAF steel so it is often used to make automotive fenders, soup cans, industrial drums or any product with a large degree of cold working. EAF steelmaking uses almost 100% recycled steel. This steel contains more residual elements that cannot be removed through the application of oxygen and lime so it is used to make structural beams, plates, reinforcing bar and other products that require little cold working. Recycling one ton of steel saves 1,100 kilograms of iron ore, 630 kilograms of coal, and 55 kilograms of limestone. Because steel beams are manufactured to standardized dimensions, there is often very little waste produced during construction, and any waste that is produced may be recycled. For a typical 2,000-square-foot (200 m2) two-story house, a steel frame is equivalent to about six recycled cars, while a comparable wooden frame house may require as many as 4050 trees. v  d  e Recycling by material aluminum   batteries   computers   concrete   glass   paper   plastic   rubber   steel   textiles   timber Contemporary steel See also: Steel grades Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes. Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase. Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. Stainless steels and surgical stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion (rust). Some stainless steels are magnetic, while others are nonmagnetic. Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's temperature resistance. Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted. Many other high-strength alloys exist, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure for extra strength. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austentite at room temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain to the metal, the austentite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat. Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This creates a very strong but still malleable metal.

Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy. Eglin Steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost metal for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 1214% manganese which when abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life. Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel. The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States. Though not an alloy, galvanized steel is a commonly used variety of steel which has been hot-dipped or electroplated in zinc for protection against rust. Uses A roll of steel wool Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, infrastructure, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure will employ steel for reinforcing. In addition to widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws. Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipeline transport, mining, offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role). Historical A carbon steel knife Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches. With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has been easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel due to their lower cost and weight. Long steel A steel pylon suspending overhead powerlines As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete Railroad tracks Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges Wires Flat carbon steel Major appliances Magnetic cores The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships. Stainless steel A stainless steel gravy boat Main article: Stainless steel Cutlery Rulers Surgical equipment Wrist watches See also CALPHAD Cold rolling Global steel industry trends Hot rolling Iron in folklore List of steel producers Machinability Maraging steel Pelletizing Rolling Rolling mill Rust Belt SAE steel grades Silicon steel Steel mill Steel abrasive Tamahagane, used in Samurai swords. Tinplate References ^ a b c d e Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) . Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. 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The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/06/science/ancient-smelter-used-wind-to-make-high-grade-steel.html?n=Top/News/Science/Topics/Archaeology and Anthropology.  ^ a b Ann Feuerbach, 'An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus' IAMS 25 for 2005, 27-43 at 29, apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 282. ^ a b G. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka". Nature 379 (3): 6063. doi:10.1038/379060a0.  ^ Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword". News nature (Nature). doi:10.1038/news061113-11.  ^ Wayman, M L and Juleff, G (1999). "Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka". Historical Metallurgy 33 (1): 26.  ^ Robert Hartwell (966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". Journal of Economic History 26: 5354.  ^ a b R. F. Tylecote, A history of metallurgy 2 edn, Institute of Materials, London 1992, 95-99 and 102-105. ^ A. Raistrick, A Dynasty of Ironfounders (1953; York 1989) ^ C. K. Hyde, Technological Change and the British iron industry (Princeton 1977) ^ B. Trinder, The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire (Chichester 2000) ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: I Blister Steel: the birth of an industry (The Metals Society, London, 1984), 48-52. ^ P. W. King (2003). "The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century". Journal of Industrial History 6 (1): 2549.  ^ a b c d "Iron and steel industry". Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: II Crucible Steel: the growth of technology (The Metals Society, London, 1984). ^ James Moore Swank (1892). History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages. ISBN 0833734636.  ^ "Bessemer process". Britannica. 2. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2005. pp. 168.  ^ "Basic oxygen process". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ J.A.T. Jones, B. Bowman, P.A. Lefrank, Electric Furnace Steelmaking, in The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 525660. R.J. Fruehan, Editor. 1998, The AISE Steel Foundation: Pittsburgh. ^ "Steel Industry". http://bx.businessweek.com/steel-industry/. Retrieved 2009-07-12.  ^ "India's steel industry steps onto world stage". http://csmonitor.com/2007/0212/p07s02-wosc.html. Retrieved 2009-07-12.  ^ "Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand". The News. 2008-03-01. http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=98951.  ^ Uchitelle, Louis (2009-01-01). "Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/02/business/02steel.html?_r=1&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ a b Hartman, Roy A. (2009). "Recycling". Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html.  ^ a b "Steel Recycling Rates at a Glance". http://www.recycle-steel.org/rates.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "2005 Minerals Handbook" (PDF). February 2007. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/recycle/recycmyb05.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-15.  ^ "Recycling steel appliances". http://recycle-steel.org/appliances.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Steel: Driving auto recycling success". http://recycle-steel.org/cars.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Facts About Steel Recycling". http://earth911.com/metal/steel/facts-about-steel-recycling/. Retrieved 2009-07-18.  ^ "Steel". http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/materials/steel.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Information on Recycling Steel Products". WasteCap of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071011205459/http://wastecap.org/wastecap/commodities/steel/steel.htm#Benefitssteel. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Steel: the clear cut alternative for building homes". http://recycle-steel.org/PDFs/brochures/residenfram.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "High strength low alloy steels". Schoolscience.co.uk. http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/16plus/steelch3pg1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-14.  ^ "Steel Glossary". American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). http://steel.org. Retrieved 2006-07-30.  ^ "Steel Interchange". American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC). Archived from the original on 2007-12-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20071222180444/http://aisc.org/MSCTemplate.cfm?Section=Steel_Interchange2&Template=/CustomSource/Faq/SteelInterchange.cfm&FaqID=2311. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Dual-phase steel". Intota Expert Knowledge Services. http://www.intota.com/experts.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual-phase+steel. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ Werner, Prof. Dr. mont. Ewald. "Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history". http://www.wkm.mw.tum.de/Forschung/projekte_html/transtrip.html. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ "Properties of Maraging Steels". http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=103. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ Mirko, Centi; Saliceti Stefano. "Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels". Tampere University of Technology. Archived from the original on 2008-03-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20080307200557/http://www.dimet.unige.it/resta/studenti/2002/27839/26/TWIP,TRIPandDualphase+mirko.doc. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ Hadfield manganese steel. Answers.com. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Retrieved on 2007-02-28. ^ Bringas, John E. (2004) (PDF). Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third Edition (3rd. ed.). ASTM International. p. 14. ISBN 0-8031-3362-6. http://astm.org/BOOKSTORE/PUBS/DS67B_SampleChapter.pdf.  ^ Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 page 1-5 ^ "Galvanic protection". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ Ochshorn, Jonathan (2002-06-11). "Steel in 20th Century Architecture". Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture. http://people.cornell.edu/pages/jo24/comments/steel.html. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Materials science". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  Bibliography Ashby, Michael F.; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992), An introduction to microstructures, processing and design, Butterworth-Heinemann.  Bugayev, K.; Konovalov, Y.; Bychkov, Y.; Tretyakov, E.; Savin, Ivan V. (2001). Iron and Steel Production. The Minerva Group, Inc.. ISBN 9780894991097. http://books.google.com/books?id=MJdIVtmwuUsC. Retrieved 2009-07-19. . Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.  Gernet, Jacques (1982). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006), Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-295358-6.  Further reading Duncan Burn; The Economic History of Steelmaking, 18671939: A Study in Competition. Cambridge University Press, 1961. Harukiyu Hasegawa, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain. 1996. J. C. Carr and W. Taplin, History of the British Steel Industry. Harvard University Press, 1962. H. Lee Scamehorn, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century. University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1 & Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 19012001. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Steel Look up steel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. World Steel Association (worldsteel) steeluniversity.org: Online steel education resources from worldsteel and the University of Liverpool Extensive picture gallery of iron and steel production methods in North America and Europe Interactive knife steel composition chart and comparison graph builder Huge archive on steels, Cambridge University Categories: Building materials | Recyclable materials | Steel | SteelmakingHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010

 

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AmScope 40X-800X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Compound Microscope $1264.98 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with offers six magnification settings, 40X, 80X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X, and advanced features. It comes with four infinity Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. This microscope is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,050. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40X-640X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Compound Microscope $1259.98 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with offers eight magnification settings, 40X, 64X, 100X, 160X, 200X, 320X, 400X & 640X, and advanced features. It comes with four infinity Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. This microscope is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,050. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40X-640X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Compound Microscope + 3MP Camera $1371 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with 3MP digital camera offers eight magnification settings, 40X, 64X, 100X, 160X, 200X, 320X, 400X & 640X, and advanced features. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. The digital camera offers 3MP high resolution, compatible with Windows XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up. Capable of capturing still images, recording and streaming live video, it provides full-screen displays and the best resolution your computer monitor can offer. With life-time free updates, the multifunctional user-friendly software included allows you to preview live images, record videos, capture still pictures, edit captures, or save them in BMP, TIFF, JPG, PICT, PTL and other formats very easily, as well as conduct length, angle, area, and other measurements. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control ap Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40X-640X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Compound Microscope + 9MP Camera $1519 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with 9.1MP digital camera offers eight magnification settings, 40X, 64X, 100X, 160X, 200X, 320X, 400X & 640X, and advanced features. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. The digital camera offers 9.1MP high resolution, compatible with Windows XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up. Capable of capturing still images, recording and streaming live video, it provides full-screen displays and the best resolution your computer monitor can offer. With life-time free updates, the multifunctional user-friendly software included allows you to preview live images, record videos, capture still pictures, edit captures, or save them in BMP, TIFF, JPG, PICT, PTL and other formats very easily, as well as conduct length, angle, area, and other measurements. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality contro Type: Microscopes

Basic Microscope Techniques $125.78 Preface 1. The Compound Microscope 2. Methods of illuminating and Using the Microscope 3. The Stereomicroscope 4. Measuring and Counting with the Microscope 5. Preparing Mounts for the Microscope 6. Collecting and Preparing Pure Cultures of Various Organisms 7. The Polarizing Microscope 8. The PhaseContrast Microscope 9. The Interference Microscope 10. The Metallurgical Microscope 11. Photomicrography 12. Physical and Chemical Microscopy Appendix Index Author: Perlman, Philip Binding Type: Hardcover Number of Pages: 424 Publication Date: 1971/02/02 Language: English Dimensions: 5.98 x 9.02 x 1.06 inches

AmScope 50X-640X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope $1248.52 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope offers eight magnification settings, 50X, 80X, 100X, 160X, 200X, 320X, 400X and 640X. It comes with a trinocular microscope Siedentopf head, an inverted body frame, four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and wide band voltage illumination system for both 110V and 220V power supplies. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. It is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,000. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope $1298.5 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope offers five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X and 800X. It comes with a trinocular microscope Siedentopf head, an inverted body frame, four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and wide band voltage illumination system for both 110V and 220V power supplies. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. It is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,000. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-2500X Metallurgical Microscope with Darkfield and Polarizing Features $3950 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers nine metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 100X, 125X, 250X, 200X, 500X, 1250X, 1000X & 2500X) and three more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 1000X & 2500X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. This microscopy system is perfect for metallurgical labs and foundries for silicon wafer inspection, integrated circuit examination, production quality control, and R&D applications. It is an ideal instrument for metallurgical, mineral and crystal identification. It is also a great microscopy system for transmitted illumination applications including those in biological areas. It is brand new in original box. Its retail value is Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-2000X Metallurgical Microscope with Darkfield and Polarizing Features $3899 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers seven metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 100X, 200X, 400X, 500X, 1000X & 2000X) and four more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 800X, 1000X & 2000X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. This microscopy system is perfect for metallurgical labs and foundries for silicon wafer inspection, integrated circuit examination, production quality control, and R&D applications. It is an ideal instrument for metallurgical, mineral and crystal identification. It is also a great microscopy system for transmitted illumination applications including those in biological areas. It is brand new in original box. Its retail value is more t Type: Microscopes

Celestron Advanced Compound Microscope Biological 500x - 44104 $154.95 Celestron Advanced Compound Microscope Biological 500x - 44104

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Metallurgical Microscope + 10MP Camera Windowns & Mac OS $1697.85 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a 10MP digital camera, offering five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X and 800X. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Metallurgical Microscope + 5MP Camera Windowns & Mac OS $1535 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a 5MP digital camera, offering five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X and 800X. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-1500X Darkfield and Polarizing Metallurgical Microscope + 1.3MP Camera $3895 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers ten metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 75X, 100X, 150X, 200X, 300X, 500X, 750X, 1000X & 1500X) and four more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 600X, 1000X & 1500X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-2500X Darkfield and Polarizing Metallurgical Microscope + 10MP Digital Camera $4320 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers nine metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 100X, 125X, 250X, 200X, 500X, 1250X, 1000X & 2500X) and three more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 1000X & 2500X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-2000X Darkfield and Polarizing Metallurgical Microscope + 3MP Digital Camera $4055 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers seven metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 100X, 200X, 400X, 500X, 1000X & 2000X) and four more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 800X, 1000X & 2000X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-2000X Darkfield and Polarizing Metallurgical Microscope + 8MP Digital Camera $3995 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers seven metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 100X, 200X, 400X, 500X, 1000X & 2000X) and four more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 800X, 1000X & 2000X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-2500X Darkfield and Polarizing Metallurgical Microscope + 5MP Digital Camera $4195 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers nine metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 100X, 125X, 250X, 200X, 500X, 1250X, 1000X & 2500X) and three more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 1000X & 2500X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-1500X Darkfield and Polarizing Metallurgical Microscope + 9MP Camera $3998 This is an up-right reflected and transmitted polarizing darkfield metallurgical microscopy system. The microscope comes with a quintuple nosepiece, seven infinitive Plan objectives, a built-in polarizer & analyzer, darkfield-viewing device, and both reflected (EPI) & transmitted illuminations. It offers ten metallurgical magnification settings (50X, 75X, 100X, 150X, 200X, 300X, 500X, 750X, 1000X & 1500X) and four more levels of transmitted magnification settings (400X, 600X, 1000X & 1500X). It is a great instrument for both metallurgical (reflected) and biological (transmitted) applications. Type: Microscopes

Barska Monocular Compound Microscope $310.43 This monocular compound microscope is ideal for hobbyists, collectors and those in educational fields. 40x, 100x, 400x magnificationArm can be angles from 90 degrees vertical to 45 degrees levelConcave Reflecting Mirror5-hole diaphragmNo power neededIncludes plastic dust coverModel number AY11240

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope + 5MP Camera $1506.75 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope comes with a trinocular microscope Siedentopf head, four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a 5MP digital camera, offering five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X. The color digital camera captures 5MP high resolution still images and streams live video on your computer screens. The user-friendly software, compatible with Windows XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up, allows you to edit and process microscope images in a manner similar to PhotoShop. You can capture still images, record videos and make measurements for lengths, angles, areas and etc. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. It is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,500. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope + 8MP Camera $1550 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope comes with a trinocular microscope Siedentopf head, four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a 8MP digital camera, offering five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X. The color digital camera captures 8MP high resolution still images and streams live video on your computer screens. The user-friendly software, compatible with Windows XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up, allows you to edit and process microscope images in a manner similar to PhotoShop. You can capture still images, record videos and make measurements for lengths, angles, areas and etc. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. It is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,500. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope + 9.1MP Camera $1567.51 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope comes with a trinocular microscope Siedentopf head, four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a 9.1MP digital camera, offering five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X. The color digital camera captures 9.1MP high resolution still images and streams live video on your computer screens. The user-friendly software, compatible with Windows XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up, allows you to edit and process microscope images in a manner similar to PhotoShop. You can capture still images, record videos and make measurements for lengths, angles, areas and etc. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. It is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $6,000. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope + 3MP Camera $1487.15 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope comes with a trinocular microscope Siedentopf head, four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a 3MP digital camera, offering five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X. The color digital camera captures 3MP high resolution still images and streams live video on computer screens. The user-friendly software, compatible with Windows XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up, allows you to edit and process microscope images in a manner similar to PhotoShop. You can capture still images, record videos and make measurements for lengths, angles, areas and etc. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applications. It is made by the same technicians and on the same production line as optical instruments for Leica, Zeiss, Nikon and Olympus. It is brand new in factory sealed boxes. Its retail value is $5,500. Type: Microscopes

BINO COMPOUND MICROSCOPE 40X 100X $399.99 Binocular Compound Microscope, 40x,100x,400x,1000x, Head rotates 360°, adjustable interpupillary distance, transmitted illumination, includes spare bulb, fuse, power cord and plastic dust cover Specifications: Model # AY11236 Microscope Type Compound Magnification 40x, 100x, 400x, 1000x Objective Lens 4x, 10x, 40x,100x Eyepiece System WF10x, 18mm Adjustment Knob Coarse and Fine Working Distance Adjustable Body Material Aluminum Alloy & Copper Weight 11.5 lbs Included Accessories Spare bulb, fuse, power cord and plastic dust cover Warranty 1 Year Limited Warranty

AmScope 50X-400X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope + 1.8MP VGA Camera $1650.85 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope offers four magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X & 400X. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a VGA video camera. The VGA camera has Sony color sensor inside streaming high resolution real-time live videos on HD TV (LCD) or computer monitors. It offers four selectable output resolution settings, 1024x768, 1280x1024, 1440x900 and 1600 x 1200, which enable the output to be optimized to match the resolution of the display monitor. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40x-1000x Advanced Home School Compound Microscope $139.98 This high power biological compound microscope comes with coarse and fine focusing and offers four levels of magnification power: 40X, 100X, 400X and 1000X. It is good microscope for students to learn science or vets to check animal sperms and fasces. It is an ideal instrument for teaching demonstration and clinical examination in biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical areas. It is a perfect microscope for home school or family use. This microscope is brand new in factory sealed box. Its retail value is $900. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40x-2000x Advanced Home School Compound Microscope $149.98 This high power biological compound microscope comes with coarse and fine focusing and offers eight levels of magnification power: 40X, 80X, 100X, 200X, 400X, 800X, 1000X, 2000X. It is good microscope for students to learn science or vets to check animal sperms and feces. It is an ideal instrument for teaching demonstration and clinical examination in biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical areas. It is a perfect microscope for home school or family use. This microscope is brand new in factory sealed box. Its retail value is $900. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40x-1600x Advanced Home School Compound Microscope $144.98 This high power biological compound microscope comes with coarse and fine focusing and offers eight levels of magnification power: 40X, 64X, 100X, 160X, 400X, 640X, 1000X, and 1600X. It is good microscope for students to learn science or vets to check animal sperms and fasces. It is an ideal instrument for teaching demonstration and clinical examination in biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical areas. It is a perfect microscope for home school or family use. This microscope is brand new in factory sealed box. Its retail value is $900. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40x-2500x Advanced Home School Compound Microscope $154.5 This high power biological compound microscope comes with coarse and fine focusing and offers six levels of magnification power: 40X, 100X, 250X, 400X, 1000X, 2500X. It is good microscope for students to learn science or vets to check animal sperm and feces. It is an ideal instrument for teaching demonstration and clinical examination in biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical areas. It is a perfect microscope for home school or family use. This microscope is brand new in factory sealed box. Its retail value is $900. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 50X-800X Inverted Trinocular Metallurgical Microscope + 1.8MP VGA Camera $1697.85 This trinocular inverted metallurgical microscope offers five magnification settings, 50X, 100X, 200X, 400X and 800X. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, a large mechanical stage and a VGA video camera. The VGA camera has Sony color sensor inside streaming high resolution real-time live videos on HD TV (LCD) or computer monitors. It offers four selectable output resolution settings, 1024x768, 1280x1024, 1440x900 and 1600 x 1200, which enable the output to be optimized to match the resolution of the display monitor. Type: Microscopes

AmScope Dual-View Compound Microscope 40x-2000x $189.98 This is a brand new teaching & training high power compound microscope. It offers eight magnification settings: 40X, 80X, 100X, 200X, 400X, 800X, 1000X, and 2000X. This microscope is specially designed for teaching and training purpose. It is a perfect family or home school microscope. It is also an ideal instrument for biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical researches. Its retail value is above $830. Type: Microscopes

AmScope Dual-View Compound Microscope 40x-2500x $194.53 This is a brand new teaching & training high power compound microscope. It offers six magnification settings: 40X, 100X, 250X, 400X, 1000X, and 2500X. This microscope is specially designed for teaching and training purpose. It is a perfect family or home school microscope. It is also an ideal instrument for biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical researches. Its retail value is above $830. Type: Microscopes

AmScope Dual-View Compound Microscope 40x-1600x $186.16 This is a brand new teaching & training high power compound microscope. It offers eight magnification settings: 40X, 64X, 100X, 160X, 400X, 640X, 1000X, and 1600X. This microscope is specially designed for teaching and training purpose. It is a perfect family or home school microscope. It is also an ideal instrument for biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical researches. Its retail value is above $830. Type: Microscopes

AmScope Dual-View Compound Microscope 40x-1000x $176.16 This is a brand new teaching & training high power compound microscope. It offers four magnification settings: 40X, 100X, 400X, and 1000X. This microscope is specially designed for teaching and training purpose. It is a perfect family or home school microscope. It is also an ideal instrument for biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical researches. Its retail value is above $830. Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40X-800X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Microscope + 1.3MP Digital Camera $1339.98 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with 1.3MP digital camera offers six magnification settings, 40X, 80X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X, and advanced features. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. The digital camera offers 1.3MP high resolution, compatible with Windows 2000/XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up. Capable of capturing still images, recording and streaming live video, it provides full-screen displays and the best resolution your computer monitor can offer. With life-time free updates, the multifunctional user-friendly software included allows you to preview live images, record videos, capture still pictures, edit captures, or save them in BMP, TIFF, JPG, PICT, PTL and other formats very easily, as well as conduct length, angle, area, and other measurements. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applica Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40X-800X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Microscope + 5MP Digital Camera $1449.98 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with 5MP digital camera offers six magnification settings, 40X, 80X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X, and advanced features. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. The digital camera offers 5MP high resolution, compatible with Windows 2000/XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up. Capable of capturing still images, recording and streaming live video, it provides full-screen displays and the best resolution your computer monitor can offer. With life-time free updates, the multifunctional user-friendly software included allows you to preview live images, record videos, capture still pictures, edit captures, or save them in BMP, TIFF, JPG, PICT, PTL and other formats very easily, as well as conduct length, angle, area, and other measurements. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control application Type: Microscopes

AmScope 40X-800X Infinity Plan Metallurgical Microscope + 10MP Digital Camera $1599.98 This professional infinity plan metallurgical microscopy system with 10MP digital camera offers six magnification settings, 40X, 80X, 100X, 200X, 400X & 800X, and advanced features. It comes with four Plan Achromatic objectives, two pairs of widefield eyepieces, and a 30 degree inclined 360 degree swiveling trinocular head. The digital camera offers 10MP high resolution, compatible with Windows 2000/XP/Vista/7 and Mac OS 10.6 & up. Capable of capturing still images, recording and streaming live video, it provides full-screen displays and the best resolution your computer monitor can offer. With life-time free updates, the multifunctional user-friendly software included allows you to preview live images, record videos, capture still pictures, edit captures, or save them in BMP, TIFF, JPG, PICT, PTL and other formats very easily, as well as conduct length, angle, area, and other measurements. This microscope is perfect for metallurgical labs, foundries for silicon wafer inspection, and quality control applicati Type: Microscopes

AmScope Student Compound Microscope 40X-1000X $99.98 This biological microscope comes with coarse &amp fine focusing, offering 40X, 100X, 250X, 400X and 1000X magnifications. Its is designed for teaching demonstration and clinical examination. This auction is a perfect package for students, families or home schools. It is also an ideal instrument for biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical researches. Its retail value is $700. Type: Microscopes

AmScope Student Compound Microscope 40X-400X $99.98 This biological microscope comes with coarse &amp fine focusing, offering 40X, 100X &amp 400X magnifications. Its is designed for teaching demonstration and clinical examination. This auction is a perfect package for students, families or home schools. It is also an ideal instrument for biological, bacteriological and pharmaceutical researches. Its retail value is $700. Type: Microscopes

Microscope $11.95 Microscope